Actors In International Relations Research Articles

The Impact of Epistemic Communities on the Development of Future International Legal Regulation of Lunar Activities

Every human culture has reflected the Moon’s influence in its cosmology, spirituality, science, creative and social life. For these reasons, the exploration and use of the Moon should be done thoughtfully and carefully, and possible resource extraction should not harm the Earth's only satellite and its environment as a whole. The adoption by some States of national legislation affecting the commercial exploitation of space resources, as well as the resumption of lunar programs by several leading spacefaring nations at a time, prompt the need for legal regulation in this area. However, to develop a detailed international legal regime for lunar exploration, the efforts of the States parties to the UN COPUOS alone are not sufficient since in practice other actors in international relations, including the so-called epistemic communities representing various types of non-governmental organizations, are also active participants in space activities. Such communities offer their own vision of the international legal regulation of relations arising in the framework of the exploration and use of the Moon basing on the norms of international space law and involving active participation of non-governmental legal entities, considering the interests of present and future generations, as well as of emerging space nations. The study presents a comprehensive analysis of the influence of epistemic communities on the development of the future international legal regime for lunar exploration. The authors consistently review the activities of non-governmental organizations within the UN COPUOS since its formation. Special attention is paid to the contribution of such communities to the progressive development of international space law and its codification, including the legal nature of the documents developed by such communities. The study concludes with a comprehensive international legal assessment of the activities of the epistemic communities.

Публичная дипломатия США в отношении центральноазиатских стран

Introduction. Public diplomacy is an effective foreign policy instrument of the state. Public diplomacy is understood as the activity of an actor aimed at achieving foreign policy objectives by establishing and deepening long-term interstate relations. The purpose of such activities is to inform foreign audiences as well as broadcast the principles of national policy beyond the borders of one’s own state. Public diplomacy is designed to influence those who have the opportunity to shape public belief systems. Methods and materials. The methodological basis of the study was a transnational approach, which allows us to reveal the role of state and non-state actors in international relations. The work uses a systematic approach in order to form a holistic view of American public diplomacy as an instrument of “soft power.” To identify the individual tools used by the United States in promoting public diplomacy in each individual Central Asian country, a comparative method was used. Analysis and results. Public diplomacy seems to be an important tool of the American administration in the most important foreign policy areas. The priority instrument of US public diplomacy in the Central Asian region is the support of civil society and non-profit organizations. Using grant support mechanisms, the role of public organizations is strengthened, and dialogue between civil society and government authorities is encouraged in the formation and development of socio-economic policy. The second relevant tool is media support and working with information consumers among various segments of the population. According to the results of the study, it was revealed that these projects were most effectively implemented in Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Tajikistan. The third most successful tool is education, whose work is based on grant programs both in the republics and in the United States. Systematic work carried out, taking into account a deep understanding of the internal processes in the Central Asian republics as well as the active use of public diplomacy tools, allows the United States to strengthen its foreign policy potential in the region.

Community of Portuguese Language Countries: Formation, development, and role on the international arena

This article addresses the pertinent issue of irreversible transformations in the diplomacy of contemporary states, international organizations, and peoples. Using the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP) as a case study, the contribution of historical, cultural, and linguistic heritage is analyzed as a specific factor fostering positive changes and progress in the lives of the people of these member states. The study aims to analyze the role of the CPLP in modern diplomacy and identify its influence on the formation of relationships between states. The aim of this research is to study the contribution of the CPLP to the development of Portuguese Language Countries. The authors conducted a comprehensive study of the history, development, and achievements of this international organization over its 27 years of existence. Special attention is given to the activities of the International Institute of the Portuguese Language (IIPL). The research successfully achieved its goal and addressed the tasks through the application of SWOT analysis. The relevance of this research lies in the growing importance of multilateral cooperation among countries sharing a common linguistic heritage. Understanding the dynamics and transformations within the CPLP is essential for grasping the changing nature of global diplomacy and the role of language as a unifying force in international affairs. The research successfully examined the formation and development of the CPLP as an actor in international relations, analyzed the activities of the Institute of the Portuguese Language as an accountable body of the organization, and studied the influence of the CPLP on the development of relations among Portuguese Language Countries. Based on the research findings, the authors conclude that the sovereign equality of CPLP member states is a paramount result of the global transformation of diplomatic relations between former metropolis and former colonies.

Psychological and propaganda operations as a form of hybrid warfare

Psychological and propaganda operations are inseparable part of hybrid warfare. The rapid complication of overall relations in the international community, especially since the beginning of 2022, has led to tectonic upheavals in the world order, which have caused numerous changes in front of our eyes. The world is changing today, perhaps faster than ever. In such complex political and security, economic and social circumstances, models of hybrid warfare gained additional importance and in a certain way, conditionally speaking, became an inseparable part of the foreign policy of the leading powers. In addition, hybrid actions of a psychological and propaganda nature have become an inseparable part of international relations. This paper first analyses the conceptual definition of the terms hybrid war, psychological and propaganda operations, and then explains the cause-and-effect relationships and examines their consequences on the offensive and defensive actors of international relations. Among the conclusions is the assertion that defensive actors may be completely unaware that a hybrid war is actually being waged against them by undertaking psychological and propaganda operations.

ПЕРЕВАГИ ТА НЕДОЛАКИ ГЛОБАЛІЗАЦІЇ АНГЛІЙСЬКОЇ МОВИ ДЛЯ УКРАЇНЦІВ

Since English is used for business and international trade in addition to being the official language of many international organizations (such as the UN, WHO, etc.), it has become a lingua franca in the modern world. English language lessons are widely taken and required in many secondary schools globally. English is now taught in many states' schools as a required foreign language, sometimes substituting other languages. Taking into account the rapid spread of the English language, the article examines the main advantages and disadvantages of English being a global language providing an example of Ukrainians living abroad and in their home country. With the help of postcolonial and globalization theories, it is shown that the spread of English is a result of the British Empire and the rise of the United States as a global actor in international relations thereafter. On the contrary, the linguistic human capital theory and theory of cultural capital underline that language proficiency can be a limitation and a getaway in socioeconomic situations. The article is conducted in a qualitative research method, namely online surveys aimed at Ukrainians in Poland, Estonia, Germany, Spain, and Ukraine. The results indicate that English being a global language provokes inequalities between people as well as people abroad are motivated to learn English because of better job opportunities. On the other hand, the number of people motivated to learn English in Ukraine is much higher.

Peran Ormas Muhammadiyah sebagai Faith-Based Organization dalam Memberikan Respons Kemanusiaan terhadap Rakyat Palestina

The protracted conflict between Israel and Palestine, which is still unresolved, has resulted in hundreds of thousands of Palestinians being displaced and in dire need of humanitarian assistance. This issue become a great concern to all international relations actors, including religious organizations. This article will discuss the role of the religion-based organization, namely Muhammadiyah, in providing humanitarian assistance to the Palestinian community. The author uses qualitative research methods with an explanatory approach. Data collection was carried out using library research techniques, namely data collection techniques sourced from books, scientific journals, research reports, mass media news, and official documents. In analyzing the data, the author uses the concepts of “Muhammadiyah” and Faith-Based Organization. The findings of this research are that Muhammadiyah's activities related to Palestine consist of four dimensions, namely providing humanitarian assistance, developing the view that defending Palestine is part of Islamic activism, collecting humanitarian funds, and providing advocacy for Palestinian independence and increasing awareness of the Indonesian people about this issue.

INSTITUTIONAL MECHANISMS OF “INITIATIVE DIPOLMACY”: FEATURES, PROBLEMS, AND PROSPECTS

The article examines the institutional mechanisms of «initiative diplomacy» with a focus on identifying their features, challenges, and prospects. «Initiative diplomacy» represents an active role of states and other actors in international relations in seeking and implementing solutions to global problems. It complements traditional diplomacy and strives for a more just and sustainable world order. The study analyzes the characteristics of the institutional mechanisms of «initiative diplomacy», highlighting that their key features include their transformative influence, ability to attract a wide range of participants, and facilitate flexible and innovative diplomatic activities. The article discusses the challenges faced by the institutional mechanisms of «initiative diplomacy» including establishing trust, coordinating actions, and others. The authors also explore the prospects for the development of institutional mechanisms of «initiative diplomacy». Their ability to engage diverse stakeholders and contribute to the achievement of just and sustainable solutions makes them promising instruments in international relations. This approach continues to evolve and holds the potential to make effective contributions to contemporary global political processes. The analysis of the features, challenges, and prospects of the institutional mechanisms of «initiative diplomacy» allows for a better understanding of their role and significance in modern international relations, as well as their potential in addressing global problems and achieving a more just and sustainable world. In this context, it is noteworthy that in recent years, the Republic of Tajikistan has actively and effectively applied the principles and mechanisms of «initiative diplomacy», establishing its prestige and status as a significant and influential state on the international stage.

ALMATY AS AN ACTOR IN WORLD POLITICS

This article analyzes the role of the southern capital of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Almaty, in the world political system. For a long period, international relations had a connection and related only to interstate interaction. In the twentieth century, new actors began to appear in the political arena – TNCs, mass media, International organizations and associations, non-governmental organizations, and Foundations. Globalization contributes to the emergence of new actors in international relations, among which cities and megacities play a special role. The issues of the socio-economic development of the city are considered. An overview of the political development was given, and the role of Almaty in the system of civilization of international relations was described. The city of Almaty was characterized as the center of business in Kazakhstan. Within the framework of this article, the importance of "urban diplomacy" as an instrument of the system of international relations was also considered.

The Rights of Transnational Corporations under International Humanitarian Law

Abstract For several decades, transnational (multinational) corporations have been considered significant actors in international relations. It is also an undeniable fact that transnational corporations are economically stronger than many states. They are also increasingly present in situations of armed conflict. On one hand, companies operating in unstable environments are exposed to the violence and consequences of armed conflicts. On the other hand, some of their actions during armed conflicts may lead to violations, particularly of international human rights law. In this paper, however, the authors would like to focus more on the status of the protection of transnational corporations under international humanitarian law. It is possible to put forward the thesis that transnational corporations, having met certain requirements, can enjoy protection under international humanitarian law. Verification of this research thesis requires analysis of issues such as the relationship between international human rights law and international humanitarian law. It also requires the analysis of the legal basis on which the rights of transnational corporations may be founded and their scope.

The involvement of non-state actors in international relations: pros and cons for development processes in countries of the global south

This paper examines the involvement of non-state actors from the global north in relations with countries in the global south from a development perspective. Utilizing a SWOT analysis framework, the study analyzes the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats associated with their engagement. The findings highlight the potential benefits of their access to resources, expertise, and advocacy, as well as the challenges related to power imbalances, accountability, and cultural dynamics. The study contributes to the existing literature by providing a comprehensive analysis of the implications of non-state actor involvement in global south development, addressing gaps in knowledge, and offering insights for policy and practice in international development.

British Coercive Diplomacy Under Prime Minister Boris Johnson to Russia as an Effort to Resolve the Russia-Ukraine Conflict

Russia's military attack on the legal territory of Ukraine is considered to be a serious threat to the national interests of the countries on the European continent. Prior to the military attack which Russia calls a “Special Military Operation” starting on February 24, 2022, various efforts to resolve the conflict have been taken by Europe, the United Nations, and other international relations actors. Britain is one of the countries that is actively pursuing diplomacy to stop Russia's actions, which the West calls an illegal invasion. In carrying out its foreign policy, the UK practices Coercive Diplomacy, namely diplomacy with pressure on Russia. This was marked by an ultimatum accompanied by economic, political and military sanctions against Russia. This study uses a qualitative research method based on secondary data from various credible sources and the conceptual theory put forward by Alexander L. George (1971) as the first initiator of the Concept of Coercive Diplomacy. Therefore, this research raises the research question How does Britain apply British Coercive Diplomacy towards Russia as a Conflict Resolution effort?” and will be answered using the characteristics given by Alexander L. George in the concept of Limited Power in Coercive Diplomacy.

PUBLIC DIPLOMACY AS A TECHNOLOGY OF THE FOREIGN POLICY OF UKRAINE

The article is devoted to consideration of the specifics of public diplomacy in Ukraine, including during the war. This made it possible to single out approaches and main principles that will increase the country’s security and attractiveness on the international stage. By applying a technological approach, the types of development and different approaches to the study of public diplomacy in Ukraine and the world were analyzed, the specifics of public diplomacy in modern Ukraine were characterized, and effective technologies of public diplomacy were determined in the conditions of the transition from two-vector to European integration. The scientific novelty consists in the review of public diplomacy technologies in the context of solving key challenges in international relations, in particular in the context of geopolitical changes and the full-scale invasion of the occupiers in Ukraine. The effectiveness of public diplomacy and its role in maintaining and improving attitudes towards the country, attracting international support and developing partnership relations have been studied. Thus, the study expands the understanding of public diplomacy as a tool that can be used to positively influence international politics. The main attention is paid to the study of the tools of public diplomacy, as effective mechanisms for the development of Ukraine’s foreign policy. The conducted research proves the need to strengthen the efforts of all actors of international relations, citizens, opinion leaders and representatives of organizations to improve the image of Ukraine, as well as its economic, social, political and cultural enrichment. It is proposed to create a public institution for cyber security, which will assist law enforcement officers from the Cyber Police and representatives of the Ministry of Digital Policy. Strategic areas of activity and effective use of public diplomacy in Ukraine during the great war and changes in the vector of development in international relations were formed. The fakes can be used by the authorities to improve the image of the state and its recognition in the international arena.

The Holy See and its role in the international system A study in the soft power of the religious actor in international relations

The study analyzes the role of the Holy See in the international system, by analyzing the soft power of the religious actor in international relations, and the unconventional nature of the diplomacy of the Holy See based on the intertwining of the religious and the political.
 The study reviews the most prominent examples of the role of the Holy See in international crises, since the adoption of the policy of external openness to all world powers after the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965), and the attempt to reduce historical differences with some countries such as China and the Soviet Union, and move away from Western and American preferences with regard to Russia, and the use of the Holy See’s privileged position in the United Nations to influence a wide range of global issues, His mediation of conflict between a variety of nations reveals impressive possibilities for the use of faith-based diplomacy.

COOPERATION BETWEEN UKRAINE AND NATO IN COUNTERING DESTRUCTIVE IINFORMATIONAL INFLUENCES OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION (2022–2023)

The research analyses NATO's experience in countering information threats, since the current level of development requires a collective fight against the spread of information, using it as a form of warfare. The spread of information is becoming increasingly complex due to the development of technology and the evolution of communication channels. It is show that NATO has recognized the need to adapt its strategies and capabilities to effectively counter the challenges posed by disinformation, propaganda and cyber operations and to expand its tools to counter hybrid threats. The article analyses the potential of the NATO-Ukraine partnership in the fight against Russian propaganda, their cooperation in the field of information security: common interests and trends. It also describes the main challenges and threats to NATO-Ukraine cooperation and defines the framework for NATO-Ukraine cooperation in cyber defense. The flow of Russian disinformation has increased significantly since the start of Russia's full-scale war in Ukraine. However, Ukraine began strengthening its information and media environment as early as 2014, and began working on mechanisms to combat information threats. Russia's disinformation campaigns are aimed at causing divisions within Ukraine and between other governments. It is important to note that the North Atlantic Alliance is also subject to Russian propaganda. For example, the Russian mass media spread the following information: 1) the purpose of the Maidan is to create NATO bases in Crimea; 2) NATO placed a biological weapons laboratory in Ukraine; 3) NATO special services worked on the hijacking of Russian planes by Ukraine; 4) NATO considers Ukraine a disposable tool for war with Russia and others. That is, it should be noted that information and its dissemination play an important role for states and international organizations to spread their own interests and achieve goals. The authors provide key recommendations for strengthening the counteraction to disinformation that can be used by any actor in international relations. As a result, it is argued that states should work to create a new autonomous institution that can conduct the data analysis necessary to ensure the independent control required by the new policy framework; media literacy should be developed; and technology companies such as Meta, YouTube and Twitter should adhere to their policies on prohibiting disinformation funded by advertising.

The Diplomacy of Small States: Exploring Opportunities and Limitations in the Case of Timor-Leste

This article examines the diplomacy of small states, focusing on the case of TimorLeste. It analyzes the foreign policy strategies of small states, which encompass bilateral and multilateral diplomacy, engagement in international organizations and global governance, and the utilization of public diplomacy. These diplomatic tools enable small states to pursue their foreign policy objectives despite their limited resources, while also fostering cooperative relationships with larger powers. Diplomacy is regarded as a universal mechanism through which small states like Timor-Leste can integrate into the global international relations system.Given the inherent limitations of small states in contesting with major and middle powers, they seek to enhance their international influence through collective actions, such as forming or joining coalitions in international organizations or intergovernmental forums. Additionally, small states employ public diplomacy to draw attention to their issues and needs, thereby reducing their reliance on greater powers and forging more advantageous collaborations with other states. Strategies such as imitation and balancing, participation in coalitions, promotion of international initiatives, provision of expertise, and adherence to the principles of international law are utilized to cultivate a positive image of small states as responsible actors in international relations and reliable partners.The article concludes that Timor-Leste has been successful in maintaining bilateral and multilateral relations and actively participating in international organizations. However, it faces systemic challenges in effectively employing public diplomacy mechanisms. These challenges can be attributed to underdeveloped national public institutions and the enduring influence of greater powers, which affect not only Timor-Leste but also the wider region.

Indigenous resistance at the frontiers of accumulation: Challenging the coloniality of space in International Relations

Abstract Latin America has long been subjected to colonial development that has negated Indigenous territory. In the present conjuncture, the region is home to the largest volume of environmental conflicts in the world. These conflicts are intrinsically connected to the wider model of neo-extractivist development that has been embraced throughout the continent since the early 2000s. Indigenous communities have frequently been the victims of this model of extractive development, with their territories becoming the primary sites for the aggressive expansion of the resource frontier. This has generated new political conflicts, as Indigenous communities conversely assert claims to territory and resources. In this article, I link these conflicts to what I term the ‘coloniality of space’, whereby Indigenous territorial forms have been theoretically elided from traditional spatial imaginaries within International Relations and concretely negated through practices within the global political economy. Moving beyond the territorial trap of nation-state centrism, Indigenous forms of resistance raise important questions about the subject and actors of International Relations.

"The International Actor (The Individual) in International Relations"

The concept of international relations is very broad. In its modern usage, it encompasses not only the relations between states but also includes the relations between states and intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, multinational corporations, and other actors. As a result of the scientific and technological advancements witnessed by humanity, along with the accompanying economic, social, and cultural developments, the state is no longer the sole actor in international relations. There are other international actors who have emerged successively, in harmony and accordance with these advancements. The international stage is no longer exclusive to the state alone. Alongside the state, international individuals have emerged who possess the ability to act, perform, and influence in international relations. The latest addition to these international actors is the individual international actor.

Diaspora diplomacy in the foreign policy of the Republic of Moldova

Within a new context of international relations determined by the evolution of relations between states, as traditional actors, but also with the emergence of new actors of international relations, diasporas have become an important tool of foreign policy. This new role of diasporas outlines the context of the development of international relations with new non-state actors, but with a transnational role. Although the phenomenon is at an early stage and taking shape, some researchers are trying to study its particularities and provide it with a suitable theoretical framework. Thus, the evolution of traditional diplomacy, with the involvement of public diplomacy, also implies an active role of the diaspora in order to achieve foreign policy objectives and boost bilateral and multilateral relations, being the forerunner of new opportunities for cooperation and interaction between states. The article will highlight the main theses

Davutoğlu, Ahmet. 2020. Systemic Earthquake and the Struggle for World Order: Exclusive Populism versus Inclusive Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. XXIV, 306 pp. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108751643.

The book is devoted to a close analysis of the formation of the modern world (dis)order and the system of international relations, which was significantly influenced by the processes of the systemic earthquake and the struggle for world order, globalization, democratization, the trend of changing the functions and balance of power of states. The current stage of international relations is characterized by dynamic development, the transformation of the role of key states participating in international processes and the redistribution of the balance of power not only in the economic, but also in the military and political spheres. There is a transition to the struggle for world order, in which a significant number of actors in international relations will determine the intensity of the systemic earthquake in global and regional political life.
 At the present stage, there is an increase in the influence of regional actors, who are increasingly claiming to strengthen their own role in international relations. One of these states is the Republic of Turkey, which acquires the properties of a link between East and West, North and South. This happens due to the intensification of the foreign policy course, the growth of interaction with many powers, including Russia.
 The book analyzes the process of transformation of the modern foreign policy of the Republic of Turkey within the framework of the ideological and value approach, which, in particular, includes soft power tools and a set of stable ideologemes used both in domestic and foreign policy discourse.

Paradiplomacy of the Sverdlovsk Region: Development and Modalities of Implementing at the Present Stage

Introduction. The article examines the key paradiplomacy areas of the Sverdlovsk region. The analysis focuses on the aspects distinguishing the region from other subjects of the present-day Russian Federation, which allowed it to become one of the leaders in developing international activities during the post-Soviet period. Methods and materials. The methodological basis of this work is constituted by the approaches devised by I. Duchacek. Paradiplomacy is defined as international contacts of regions with different actors in international relations regarding economic, political, cultural and environmental issues. These contacts move in the same direction as activities undertaken by central authorities. Approaches by I. Duchacek, R. Kaiser, A. Kuznetsov, Yu. Akimov were applied to study the motives and factors for active paradiplomacy development of the Sverdlovsk region. To examine the modalities of implementing paradiplomacy in the Sverdlovsk region, scientific and analytical materials were used along with statistic data and indicators provided by the Ministry of International and Foreign Economic Relations of the Sverdlovsk Region and by the Russian Export Center JSC. Analysis. It was found that the Sverdlovsk region became the first to base its paradiplomacy on the regional identity. On the one hand, the regional identity development was marked by a conflict between the region and the central authorities; on the other hand, the local ruling groups deliberately fostered the policy of regional uniqueness. Mainstreaming the regional identity served the practical interests of elites both in internal political legitimation and in establishing their international economic, political and cultural personality. In the 2000s, the paradiplomacy model of the Sverdlovsk region transformed from conflict to cooperation based on partnering and seeking a compromise with the federal government. Results. The strategy of paradiplomacy development chosen by the region is evaluated as a success. The emphasis put by the regional authorities on implementing large-scale international projects and developing foreign trade relations allows the Sverdlovsk region not only to keep the indicators of foreign economic activities stable, but also to retain elements of its regional identity.